The corruption challenge needs first to be focused – disaggregated – into specific issues. Our experience is that there are 20-40 different issues in each sector, recognisable to those working in it. They can then be organised into an easily comprehensible format – a typology. The reforming group uses the one-page typology as the starting point for discussion and for analysing them: their scale, importance, context, avoidability and solubility. You can use this as the basis for building a shared understanding of the impact of the corruption.

Start by disaggregating the different corruption types that you are faced with. You can do this in the following way:

1. Looking this review at the typology of the different corruption issues in your sector. Use this as the basis of your identification of the corruption issues in your situation. If you find that the typology is not really suitable, then make your own one, by analogy with the ones you see in the CurbingCorruption site.
2. Gather data on the impact of these issues on your activities/outputs/policies/operations.
3. Decide if it would help to do a formal analysis of the corruption situation. There are two analyses you can consider. 1) Analysing the issues and the levels of corruption risk. This takes time but gives you a thorough baseline for your reforms. It also serves to show the level of danger and damage from corruption to staff and to the public. 2) An analysis of the economic and political pressures, including the levels of support and opposition that you can expect. This is called a ‘political economy analysis’.
4. Prepare for the later step in which you develop your Approach by thinking about which the best ‘entry points’ are likely to be – certain corruption issues, regardless of scale, merit being tackled first because they are the most likely to build constructive momentum and/or enable further reform.
5. Use this Focus knowledge to build up a shared understanding among your team/your colleagues/ your collaborators about what they corruption issues are and how they are impacting your operations. Everyone has a different view of what corruption is, so you use this analysis to bring everyone to the same understanding of them.
6. Draw on the international experience of tackling corruption in your sector – details can be found later in the review

You can read more guidance on FOCUS here.

A sinister form of political corruption in some post-communist societies involved states deliberately underpaying salaries so as to force employees to get involved in corruption to supplement their income, and then collect evidence of wrong doing and coerce them into compliance (supporting the regime) [11]. This ensured the position of universities as tools of political socialisation and enabled regimes to sustain themselves. Subsequently, many academics broke ranks and took up positions of power at state or local level or in the military and security apparatus [12].

Ibrahimi’s study on higher education in Afghanistan provides a view of private higher educational institutes as extensions of political and religious patronage networks, especially when politicians and religious figures sponsor a significant number of such institutions as a means of cultivating and extending their support base among the country’s emerging educated class [13]. She argues that while investment in education by political and religious protagonists could be a positive development, there are multiple risks of doing this in poorly regulated, post-conflict environment. First, it distorts the competitive nature of the market for higher education in which investors should expect to maximize profit based on the quality of their education and their credibility. The emergence of new institutes that have massive resources and lower fees can place significant strain on other institutes that are hoping to generate revenues through the quality of their service. Such institutions with connections to political and religious networks can also jeopardise the integrity and credibility of the higher education system when universities owned by politicians and the “rich and famous” achieve accreditation despite not meeting the minimum requirements [14].

The institutions become a channel through which power holders can strengthen their support base among the country’s educated class. They can also use the institution to further their political and ideological interests, embracing narrow agendas directed towards particular audiences. The politicization of higher education in this manner can have serious implications for peace, democracy and stability in fragile states where various groups continue to vie for power, especially when institutions become centres of indoctrination [15].

The politicization of higher education is not limited to the establishment and sponsorship of private universities by elites but extends to political involvement in the appointment of university managers. Heads of State are often Chancellors of public universities [16]. Student affairs in many public universities in Africa mirror politics at the national level and university politics is so politicised that students cannot achieve leadership positions unless they are endorsed by the ruling party [17].  The use of money in student politics echoes what happens at national level elections, with displays of largesse and various forms of vote buying and coercion manifesting in student elections [18].

Other examples of grand corruption include the lack of transparency in the award of research grants and scholarships, as well as budget distortions and diversion of money for higher education to other government activities. In Slovakia, money meant for university science and research was redistributed to private companies that had no prior experience in research [19].

Another type of political corruption involves granting unearned credentials and qualifications to politicians, their kin and cronies. The controversial award of a PhD to Grace Mugabe, wife of former present of Zimbabwe, Robert Mugabe, is one such example [20]. Uganda’s first lady Janet Museveni, was allegedly awarded a degree in education despite not fulfilling the requirement for teaching practice. When she was admitted as a student, she did not go through the usual application process and the admission requirements were waived for her [21]. In Mexico, a political patron was awarded degrees in Orthodontistry and law that he did not study for [22].  In Kenya, corrupt university officials graduated prominent, but academically unqualified, students from abbreviated or non-existent study programs. In 2017, the regulator of higher education in Kenya, the Commission for University Education, asked a number of universities to revoke the illegitimately awarded degrees [23]. In Uganda, Busoga University awarded more than one thousand degrees to (mostly) Sudanese government officials in exchange for a “premium-tuition” fee of USD 1,000 whereas average fees are USD 300 per year. Many were admitted despite the fact that they did not meet the admission criteria and graduated in “fast track” two-month degree programmes. The officials,  supposedly, needed the degrees to maintain their positions in the government. The Uganda National Council for Higher Educations (NCHE) is investigating the incident [24].

Bribery in accreditation is especially problematic because it spawns a host of other types of academic corruption and creates a vicious cycle of related ills. For instance, it leads to the accreditation of institutions that do not have the staff or facilities (classrooms, libraries, internet access, etc.) required to provide a sound education, leading to a lowering of professional standards and a widening of the gap between knowledge and skills on one hand and labour market requirements on the other. Some universities, having bribed to achieve accreditation, lowered their admission requirements and admitted students who had not passed the requisite secondary school examinations. Such students are of course, more liable to lie and cheat their way through assessments and examinations, as they simply cannot cope with the standard at tertiary level. In addition, teaching staff are under pressure to lower pass marks, as the alternative would be to discontinue students, leading to a loss of reputation and income for the institution.

The demand for higher education, combined with lax regulation weakened even further by corruption also created a situation where universities created duplicate programmes under different titles; for instance, bachelors’ degrees in business studies, commerce or entrepreneurship had different titles but similar content, all offered by the same university.  Sometimes the admission requirements differ, but the overall incentive is to attract and enrol as many students as possible in order to maximize income. This duplication of programmes, as well as the factors mentioned above, creates an over-supply of unemployable graduates, with profound social, political and economic implications for societies.

In some universities, first year admissions are also blighted by accommodation rackets with bribery and extortion for places in halls of residence and hostels [27]. This has been fostered by the rise in student numbers without a corresponding match in housing facilities for students. Wardens, custodians, resident tutors and student leaders connive to extort money from first year students who are desperate for accommodation on campus or close by.

The internationalization of higher education has “exported” corruption in the admissions process, even to countries such as Australia that achieve high scores on Transparency International’s Corruption Perception Index and are not regarded as endemically or systemically corrupt. The National Association for College and Admission Counselling (NACAC) based in the USA states that international student enrolments at institutions of higher education have nearly quadrupled over the past three decades, from 1.1 million in 1985 to 4.3 million in 2011. The number may be higher now, and the international student population will probably surpass 7 million by 2025 [28]. NACA further says that there are over 20,000 recruitment agencies worldwide funnelling students to countries like Australia, the U.K., and, in recent years, the U.S., where thirty percent of universities may be using agents for undergraduate admissions [29].

Unfortunately, the system, based on commissions calculated according per capita, has created incentives for corruption. Sixty-one per cent of U.S. admissions directors surveyed in 2013 believed that agents help “international applicants fabricate parts of their applications.” [30]. In 2011, the Australian government blocked over 200 unscrupulous agents from India, China, and Australia from submitting visa applications because they submitted fraudulent information in support of student visa applications [31].

The fraud involved in international student recruitment has also spawned cheating in English language proficiency tests, online cheating sites selling assignments or providing “file sharing” facilities, plagiarism, cheating and fraud in examinations. This is because many international students for whom English is a second or even third language, and who might have lied about their abilities in their applications, struggle to keep up with the linguistic and academic demands of their courses [32].

Nepotism and favouritism in university appointments was recently under the spotlight in Italy, where it was revealed that there was rampant nepotism and favouritism in university appointments. Heads of Italian university departments, known as ‘baroni’ or ‘barons’, were awarding qualifications based on exchanges of favours or private or professional interest rather than merit. A total of 59 people were under investigation, seven were placed under house arrest for corruption and 22 banned from holding academic posts for 12 months while the investigation continues [34].

The rapid, inadequately regulated expansion of higher education created opportunities for new forms of corruption. Since the 1990s, university management reforms in African developing countries focused on the ‘corporatization’ of universities. The reforms were hinged on transforming public universities into entrepreneurial institutions as an income generating strategy, to address the decline of government funding to higher education due to, first, the imposition of Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) and second, the diversion of education funding away from higher to basic education. This meant that public universities begun to charge tuition or raise what were previously nominal fees, turning students into consumers and not just learners. Universities were obliged to hire more staff to teach the rising numbers of students, and since public funding to universities had decreased, such staff were hired on temporary contracts with pay linked to the number of hours taught. “Moonlighting” [35] has become common, with lecturers teaching in several universities to make ends meet. Thus, lecturer absenteeism is a problem in many developing countries [36]. Some lecturers connive with custodians and administrative staff to claim hours not taught and make up the shortfall in contact hours by selling self-published notes or requiring students to photocopy “handouts.”

University funds are vulnerable to fraud because of unique aspects of university management, which create incentives for fraudsters and make it difficult to detect fraud. These aspects include the decentralised functions and risk management processes, which implies that administrators are often unaware that a fraud could be taking place in the project or department for which they are responsible. Furthermore, the heavy academic workload, and the high amount of trust placed in university staff, can allow fraudsters to operate undetected for a while. Often, there are weak internal control systems and little external oversight [38].

University management may misappropriate and embezzle funds, or collude with suppliers to rig the bidding process, resulting in sub-standards supplies or construction works. At Makerere University in Uganda, corruption was suspected when a newly constructed perimeter wall collapsed during the subsequent raining season [39].

A less reported type of fraud occurs when lecturers order desk copies of books from publishers under the guise of considering them for adoption as a textbook, then sell them online. Professors can make lots of money through schemes such as these. In a similar scheme, professors self-publish teaching content for their courses and then make students buy it. When professors and other faculty develop products using public or university-sponsored research funds, and then market or sell the products through their own private companies, this too amounts to the abuse of their power for their personal benefit. Misuse of university property for personal issues is another often ignored risk.

The submission of term papers, theses and dissertations written by ghostwriters – so-called contract cheating or “essay mills” have been rising over the past decade [41]. The ghostwriting industry is thriving, and it is easy to commission a writing assignment. In the UK, it was reported that more than twenty thousand students bought writing assignments from essay mills in 2016 [42]. It is estimated that there are now more than 1,000 English-language essay mill sites on the web, raking in tens of millions of dollars every year [43]. The scale is so big that the number of such assignments submitted by students worldwide would be impossible to quantify. In countries where internet access to limited and students cannot easily buy essays on line, manual diploma mills in the form of “dissertation markets” or “proposal writing consultants,” do the job [44]. Students can simply pay an individual to write their essays or dissertations for them. A survey of students in Saudi Arabia in 2014, found that more than 20 percent of students had paid somebody else for completing writing assignments [45]. In Wandegeya, a suburb of Kampala near Makerere University, Uganda numerous shop windows advertise “proposal writing services” for a fee.

The lack of transparency in research processes is especially pertinent in clinical trials, which have immediate, potentially fatal repercussions. It is estimated that billions of dollars are lost annually to clinical research whose findings are over-stated, falsified and sometimes never published. Some of this research takes place in university contexts [47].

A related problem is fake journals and fake peer reviews. Fake journals have proliferated since the expansion of internet-based open access journals. Some have non-existent “ghost” editors and editorial boards, charge a fee for authors to publish academic articles with them, hold bogus conferences, and often publish articles of poor quality [48]. An international medical journal, Tumour Biology, retracted 107 Chinese-authored papers. The publisher of the journal, Springer, said the retractions were because the peer review process had been compromised by fabricated peer reviewer reports [49]. The Chinese government had set up an incentive system under which academics were awarded cash prizes for articles, and promotions and research grants were based on publication output.  This was meant to boost China’s standing in international science but had the unintended effect of motivating some to submit fake articles based on “cooked” data [50]. A similar problem in Pakistan led to the cancellation of several doctoral programmes [51]. Performance-based financing scheme such as these are susceptible to “gaming” and should therefore provide safeguards against it.

Whereas cheating in exams has been a problem for a long time, technological advancements in the forms of mobile phones and tablets have broadened the means and methods for cheating. Students can request and receive answers to questions by text, wireless microphone and earphones, iPods and MP3 players [52]. A related form of cheating that has proliferated in the digital age is students’ ability to illegally access test banks of multiple-choice questions or other instructor-only resources. Test banks are “instructor resource tools provided to the faculty by the vendor who sells the corresponding textbook” [53].

In 2017, 88 staff members at Makerere University Uganda were arrested for corruption in connection with the alteration of student grades and the issuance of fraudulent degrees. The alterations were made through the “back-end” of the software programme that was used to manage examination records. 600 degrees awarded by the university had previously been revoked in 2014 [54].  In 2016, the Kenyan government dissolved the country’s national examinations board and ordered the arrest of its leaders after they were blamed for widespread cheating in university entrance tests. Senior managers at the Kenya National Examinations Council were implicated in cheating and 5,101 students had their results cancelled. Question papers were  shared on the WhatsApp messaging service before exams, and texts of examination questions were on sale for about USD 7 each [55].

Another type of degree mill considers an applicant’s work experience and purports to award a degree based on a description of this experience ^[56]. In 2017 in India, the authorities charged a man with the sale 2,000 forged degrees in Bangalore. It is estimated that up to 40,000 people gained employment based on fake credentials in this manner [57].  An Arabic news website also reports that degree shops have sprung up on the on the border between Syria and Turkey, where unscrupulous people take advantage of desperate Syrian refugees and migrants by selling them forged documents on their way to Europe. A high school diploma costs USD $600 and a university degree costs as much as USD $2,500 [58].

Older studies from the US from the 1990s indicate that up to one third of female students faced sexual harassment each year [62]. A recent report from Australia states that around half of all university students (51%) were sexually harassed on at least one occasion in 2016, and 6.9% of students were sexually assaulted on at least one occasion in 2015 or 2016. A significant proportion (26%) of the sexual harassment experienced by students in 2015 and 2016 occurred in university settings.

Men were the main perpetrators of both sexual assault and sexual harassment, and a significant proportion of students who were sexually assaulted or sexually harassed knew the perpetrator, who was most likely to be a fellow student from their university. Postgraduate students were  twice as likely as undergraduate students to have been sexually harassed by a lecturer or tutor from their university [63].

Sexual harassment is defined as:

Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favours or unwanted physical, verbal or non-verbal conduct of a sexual nature. Such conduct would constitute sexual harassment when:

• Submission to such conduct is made either explicitly or implicitly a term or condition of an individual’s employment or academic achievement or advancement; or
• Submission to or rejection of such conduct is used or threatened or insinuated to be used as the basis for decisions affecting the employment and/or the academic standing of an individual; or
• Such conduct has the purpose or effect of unreasonably interfering with an individual’s work or academic performance or creating an intimidating, threatening, hostile or offensive working or learning environment” [64].

Reform measures will always be specific to the particular circumstances. Nonetheless, in order to get ideas and insights, it helps to learn about reforms employed elsewhere and to have a mental model of the type of what sorts of reforms are possible. We recommend you consider each of these eight categories of specific reform approaches:

1. Functional approaches: improving institutions, public financial management, systems and controls
2. People-centred approaches: building networks and coalitions of supporters
3. Monitoring approaches: strengthen oversight groups and their independence
4. Justice & rule-of-law approaches: prosecuting, raising confidence, improving laws
5. Transparency approaches: making visible what others wish to keep hidden
6. Integrity approaches: motivating, instilling pride and commitment
7. Civil society and media: creating space for external voices
8. Incentives and nudge approaches: aligning stakeholders, economics and behavioural knowledge

Talking through with colleagues and stakeholders how each of them might work in your environment enables you to ‘circle around’ the problem, looking at different ways and combinations to tackle it. One feasible option might, for example, consist of some institutional improvement projects, plus strengthening integrity among staff, plus strengthened sanctions and discipline.

You can read more guidance on Specific Reform Measures here.

De facto, not just de jure autonomy is important for safeguarding universities from political interference. Higher education reforms in developing countries over the past two decades have often retained a role for heads of state in university affairs, which creates a loophole for state interference [66].  The concept of comprehensive university autonomy includes academic, financial and organisational autonomy. University autonomy means that the state renounces its right to intervene in the operational activities of higher education institutions, but maintains a relationship of trust, respect and openness with them. It also means that the state hands over responsibility for the quality of education and research, along with the necessary organisational and financial tools, to universities as self-governing institutions and that state, private and municipal higher education institutions have equal rights and responsibilities [67].

University governance should be based on the good governance principles of participation, accountability and transparency. Thus, university autonomy necessitates that each university should have its own anti-corruption and integrity policy. Such a policy should be developed in a participatory manner and should set standards for ethics and integrity through a code of conduct and establish corresponding sanctions for students and staff who violate the standards. Consistent and uniform enforcement in accordance with due process principles must be adhered to. Whistleblower policies and procedures would be an essential part of a university anti-corruption policy.

Internal Quality Assurance (IQA) is important. As most IQA parameters focus on teaching, learning, employability and management, curbing corruption should be an explicit feature of IQA systems. IQA should be conducted in an inclusive manner, with leadership commitment and stakeholder participation [68]. The IQA should ensure transparency in staff recruitment, student admission, and financial management.

Even though autonomy is important, consistency and uniformity in policies at the national and international level is indispensable because higher education has become a global good. There are various ongoing attempts to harmonise higher education across regions, such as the European Union Bologna Process, which aims to promote compatibility and uniform quality assurance frameworks for higher education in Europe [69].  The Association of African Universities, working with the African Union and UNESCO, is also working to harmonise higher education standards under the Arusha Convention of 2007. This includes the development of an African Quality Rating Mechanism [70]. Collaborative initiatives such as these present an opportunity for collective action against academic corruption that respects the autonomy of institutions whilst recognising the importance of uniform and consistent standards across regions.

University staff and faculty are responsible for enforcing academic integrity amongst students. They should also adhere to ethical principles in their teaching and research. Faculty should create an enabling environment for integrity by clearly showing students how to present assignments and encouraging reflection on the dangers and implications of dishonesty [79]. Academic Integrity Policies should be pasted on notice boards and disseminated as widely as possible. Exam question papers and scripts should reinforce the message.

Involving students is indispensable. As noted by Pavela, “Ultimately, the most effective deterrent will be a commitment to academic integrity within the student peer group.” Anti-plagiarism boards or committees and other investigation and sanctioning mechanisms should balance authority and involve students as well as faculty [80]. Slovakia and Czech secondary school and university students organised a protest march to protest the misuse and diversion of money meant for universities to the private sector and collected signatures for a petition calling for the resignation of the Special Prosecutor, who failed to investigate the scandal [81].

Governments have a role to play, not only in enacting and enforcing adequate higher education regulations and standards, but also in respecting academic freedom and avoiding political interference in the affairs of universities. Internal or Home Affairs departments regulate the entry of international students; and should play a role in emphasizing the importance of integrity in student visa applications. Governments set higher education policy and allocate public funding. In addition, governments are responsible for enforcing law and order, such as cracking down on diploma mills and ensuring that individuals implicated in forgery and fraud are prosecuted.

Lastly, civil society, especially professional associations, trade unions and other civic organisations working in education and accountability can play a role in raising awareness of the issues of academic integrity, verifying professional qualifications and enforcing of professional standards.

Corruption problems in accreditation and licensing of universities are often tied to lack of resources. Establishing a university with adequate facilities is an expensive undertaking, and many university promoters might find it cheaper to bribe an accrediting agency than to invest in proper facilities.  Accreditation bodies should have staggered frameworks that specify minimum requirements but oblige universities to grow and improve overtime.

Quality assurance is also necessary for monitoring and evaluation of higher education institutions. Institutions should have performance indicators, and performance-based financing (with safeguards against fraudulent “gaming”) can help to stimulate high standards and good practices in management, teaching and research in higher education [84].

Other stakeholders that are indirectly connected to universities can also play a role in promoting integrity. These include professional regulatory bodies such as Medical Councils, Lawyers’ Councils, Engineers’ Boards and so on that licence professions to practice. Such bodies are gatekeepers to the professions and can serve as ‘watchdogs’ to keep people implicated in academic corruption from being allowed to practice their professions. They maintain registers of registered professionals who can be struck off for engaging in corrupt behaviour. Lastly, they often issue codes of conduct and regulations for professional to abide by. Such codes are often taught to university students as part of their courses; and indeed, many external quality assurance frameworks co-opt professional regulatory bodies in course accreditation [85].

Related professional associations that bring members of professions together to exchange ideas, information and practices also have a role to play, for instance, through mentorship of university students and liaising with university level student associations to promote professional values and practices.  As many professionals are private practitioners, the private sector has a crucial role to play in reducing corruption in higher education, especially as they have an interest in ensuring that the graduates they employ are properly qualified and have integrity.

This is the political, judgemental, tactical part of the strategy formulation exercise. It starts with how to shape the overall approach. Would it be most effective to mainstream the anti-corruption improvements within a larger improvement initiative? Or to adopt an incremental approach, keeping the anti-corruption measures below the political radar? Or tackle just one vital aspect of the corruption problem so as to concentrate effort and have a visible result? Would the organisation’s output be better if the overall anti-corruption approach was framed as integrity-building, as confidence-building, or directly as confronting corruption?  The actionable reform approach will be more political, more contextual and more time-bound than individual measures; how to build support, how to spread the benefits, how to bring opponents on board or how to outflank them.

We suggest that you – in collaboration with those who might also own the reforms with you – start out by examining these eight possible approaches: Broad approach; Narrow approach; Low-profile approach; Rapid & radical approach; Signature-issue approach; Bundling approach; Keeping-up-hope approach.

Issues to consider include:

1. Thinking through objectives and what impact you really want to achieve
2. Challenging yourselves by considering strategic opposites and different entry points
3. Flexibility – preparing yourselves to be wrong
4. People, politics and skill – where and how to build support
5. Implementation – setting up a sound programme
6. Maximising supportive structures across government & stakeholders.
7. Choices in very high corruption environments

You can read more guidance on Political & Tactical Approaches here.

The proliferation of diploma and degree mills make it imperative to authenticate and verify academic credentials. This requires concerted efforts by higher education regulatory agencies across the globe. Verification and authentication may be done manually, or digitally (online). For example, Pakistan’s Higher Education Commission [86] and China’s Academic Degrees and Graduate Education Development Center [87] conduct qualification verification. Online verification is also becoming common. The West African Examinations Council (WAEC)^[88]  is implementing a sophisticated digital method involving a unique pin code to check against a database. A scratch-card is sent with the student’s application and can be scratched to reveal a serial number and one-use pin number to access or verify the student’s official examination record online.  Similarly, the Malaysian government recently launched an online database that enables the verification of doctoral degrees [89]. All in all, countries and universities should work together to establish centralised databases that employers and other institutions can use to check the validity of certificates and diplomas.

The internationalisation of higher education has been facilitated by international recruitment agencies, and yet these are not properly regulated either globally or nationally. Some institutions have developed guidelines for vetting international recruitment agencies [90].  The guidelines recommend careful vetting of agents to ensure that they have a proven track record in working with reputable institutions, are regarded as reliable by other universities, are appropriately licensed, maintain adequate staffing, and use ethical recruitment methods. They recommend that before setting up contracts with such agencies, it is advisable to inspect agency offices on-site, and include clearly defined quality and admissions standards in written agreements. Continuous oversight of agencies throughout the contract period is important.

Admissions procedures can be improved by supplementing exam results with face-to-face interviews (whether in person or via Skype) to assess applicants and detect potential fraud. This could be difficult to implement in many universities where large numbers of students are admitted and there is inadequate staff capacity to conduct interviews. Some universities or departments within them run their own carefully controlled entrance exams.

The UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP) and Council for Higher Education (CHEA) Advisory Statement for Effective International Practice on Combatting Corruption and Enhancing Integrity recommends the following:

• The use of external examiners to double-grade exams
• Anonymization of examination forms (barcodes instead of names)
• Cyber security measures to control access to student records
• Use of university rankings based on corruption criteria
• External audits of admissions decisions
• Sanctions on politicians, civil servants and others with fake degrees
• Legislative protection of whistle blowers [91].

Other suggestions to reduce fraud and cheating include:

• Changing assessment methods and supplementing student assessment with presentations and oral examinations, so that a particular grade is not based on a single high-stakes essay [92]
• Alternatively, assessment that builds on the student’s own experiences, classwork, prior drafts and feedback is more challenging to ghostwrite. It is also possible for universities to establish a system based on sequences of tasks that have a small mandatory supervised component.
• Requiring students to undertake all assessments in class (provided there are safeguards against impersonation) to curb ghost-writing.
• Randomised seating during exams and preparing several versions of the same exam in anticipation of leakages.
• Employing sufficient numbers of supervisors during exams.

Nonetheless, understanding the root causes of plagiarism is essential if we are to craft appropriate solutions. Education has become a very high stakes affair, and students face enormous pressures to succeed from their families. Supporting students to do their best, rather than failure and recrimination when they do not perform as expected, requires a significant attitudinal and cultural shift amongst parents and across nations ^[93]. Plagiarism detection is both a learning opportunity and a time to sanction unethical behaviour. An approach that focuses on the dishonesty and seeks to punish perpetrators based on a criminal law model does not necessarily help students to learn how to avoid plagiarism. The unprecedented rise in plagiarism facilitated by internet access therefore calls for a learning approach that emphasises fair and consistent approaches that consider students views [94].

Higher education institutions should each have a specific policy on academic dishonesty that defines what amounts to wrong-doing and the procedure to be followed where wrongdoing is suspected or proved. Policies should define what amounts to plagiarism and cheating and prescribe sanctions or punishments. A whistleblowing mechanism where anonymous reports of transgressions are made is also necessary. The International Centre for Academic Integrity discussed below prescribes a participatory policy making process.

A number of African Universities have signed the Dar es Salaam Declaration on Academic Freedom and Social Responsibility of Academics in Africa, and Declaration on Intellectual Freedom and Social Responsibility of Intellectuals in Africa. These documents emphasise the importance of academic integrity. Article 46 of the Dar es Salaam Declaration states that “All members of the academic community have a responsibility to fulfil their functions and academic roles with competence, integrity and to the best of their abilities. They should perform their academic functions in accordance with ethical and highest scientific standards.”

A number of studies have established that ethics training as part of university degree courses can improve student’s integrity and sensitivity to ethical dilemmas [95]. ‘The main idea behind [ethics teaching at tertiary level] is that universities must confront the question: which ethical dilemmas do we face in our educational setting, and which are we likely to face in future professional careers? The aim is not to teach university students that corruption is bad or morally harmful, which they already know, but to teach them to think critically about handling situations in which their professional ethics could be compromised’ [96].

Review what international sector efforts are active in tackling corruption in your sector. They may be sources of knowledge, ideas, support and assistance in the development of your initiative. Sector-specific organisations include:

• Professional sector associations (many have an ‘anti-corruption working group’ or similar forum);
• Initiatives and programmes targeted on building integrity, raising transparency and reducing corruption in the sector;
• Multilateral organisations associated with the sector (e.g. World Health Organisation). They too may have anti-corruption knowledge and capability.

Non-sector-specific organisations also have sector knowledge. These include:

• Multilateral economic organisations such as World Economic Forum, IMF and OECD; among these,
• OECD has a large group focused on public integrity and anti-corruption.
• There are multiple stand-alone initiatives focused on issues such as beneficial ownership transparency, or access to information.
• Multilateral development organisations, like the World Bank, UNDP and U4, can hold valuable sector knowledge and expertise, whether or not you are based in a developing country.

ICAI has developed a comprehensive approach to enhancing integrity that involves a participatory risk assessment followed by a participatory reform process. ICAI has developed an Academic Integrity Assessment Guide.^[103] The guide facilitates institutions to evaluate the effectiveness of their academic integrity programs and policies; assess student and faculty attitudes and behaviour in classrooms, labs, and exams; identify potential concerns from sanctions to educational programs; develop action plans to improve understanding on the importance of academic honesty and promote open dialogue about academic integrity issues on campus.

The guide also provides a number of academic integrity templates for violation and resolution reports; classroom handouts that explain unauthorised collaboration and how to avoid plagiarism [104] [105] guidelines for establishing an effective academic integrity assessment committee; and step-by-step instructions for generating revised policies, practices, programmes and sanctions. It also includes suggested assessment and educational activities for focus groups; examples of codes of conduct, as well as plagiarism and academic integrity online tutorials.

ICAI had developed a Model Code for Academic Integrity, which is freely available online [106]. The code applies to students as well as staff and is premised on the fact that academic integrity is a shared responsibility, and that a model based on punishment alone will not work. It emphasises that “the most effective deterrent will be a commitment to academic integrity within the student peer group” [107].

ICAI is encouraging universities to designate and celebrate Academic Integrity Days and Weeks for awareness raising. It also has an Academic Integrity Rating System [108] whose role is to identify benchmarks for institutionalising academic integrity in schools, colleges and universities and reward campuses for their efforts to curb cheating and empower academic integrity. It also allows colleges and universities to compare themselves to similar institutions. The rating system collects data on academic integrity that interested stakeholders can use to check the efforts of different institutions on academic integrity. Lastly, the data that is being collected will enable future research that can lead to a continuous improvement of efforts in this area.

Abagi, O., 2006. “Private Higher Education in Kenya,” Chapter 3 in Growth and expansion of private higher education in Africa,UNESCO International Institute for Education Planning, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001502/150255e.pdf, p. 91

Academic Anonymous, 2015. “We shouldn’t keep quiet about how research grant money is really spent,”The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/2015/mar/27/research-grant-money-spent;

Achuka, V. (2015) “Money and Politics behind student unions,” The Daily Nation https://www.nation.co.ke/news/politics/The-money-and-politics-behind-student-unions/1064-2661876-format-xhtml-fw6csrz/index.html

Aduda, D., 2017. “Kenyan universities given deadline to clear rot as quality declines.” The East African, http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/kenya-universities-deadline-to-clear-rot/2558-3869142-tkusp8z/index.htmlSee also Ouma, W., 2017. “Kenya Varsities Cancel fake degrees.” The East African, http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/Kenya-varsities-cancel-fake-degrees/2558-4007612-6tb8dq/index.html

African News Agency (ANA), 2018. “Anti-plagiarism software enhances academic integrity.” The Citizen,  https://citizen.co.za/news/south-africa/1841197/anti-plagiarism-software-enhances-academic-integrity/

Ajayi et al, 1996. The African Experience with Higher Education, Association of African Universities; London: James Currey; Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, Accra. Quoted in http://www.olugbemirojegede.com/keynotes/Quality_of_University_Education_in_Nigeria_Univ_of_Uyo_Convocation_Lecture_2017.pdf

American Council on Education, 2017. Mapping internationalisation on US campuses, http://www.acenet.edu/news-room/Documents/Mapping-Internationalization-2017.pdf, pp. 26-27

Anonymous, 2017. “Is there a culture of denial around sexual misconduct in academia?” Times Higher Education, at https://www.timeshighereducation.com/features/there-culture-denial-around-sexual-misconduct-academia

Australian Government, 2011. Strategic Review of the Student Visa Programme, Chapter 14, https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/ReportsandPublications/Documents/reviews-and-inquiries/2011-knight-review.pdf

Australian Human Rights Commission, 2017. Change the Course: National Report on Sexual Assault and Sexual Harassment at Universities. At https://www.humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/document/publication/AHRC_2017_ChangeTheCourse_UniversityReport.pdf

Awiti A, Scott B, Orwa C, Bhanjee S, 2017. East Africa Youth Survey.East Africa Institute, Aga Khan University, Nairobi, Kenya. The survey data can be dowloaded at http://data.eadialogueseries.org/

Badrawi, H. et al, 2008. The Management of University Integrity. Proceedings of the Seminar of the Magna Carta Observatory 19 September, 2007. Bononia University Press.

Barblan, A. et al, 2007.Academic Malpractice Threats and Temptations. Magna Charta Observatory and National Union of Students in Europe. Bononia University Press.

Barigaba, J., 2016. “Uganda: Scandal- How Ugandan Varsity awarded 1,000 South Sudanese degrees in months,” The East Africanhttp://allafrica.com/stories/201611290869.html

BBC News, 2015. “Vyapam: India’s deadly medical school exam scandal.” At http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-33421572

BBC News, 2018. “Uganda’s  Makerere University to investigate sexual harassment,” reprinted at The East Africanhttp://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/Uganda-Makerere-University-investigate-sexual-harassment/2558-4344654-pss35s/index.html

Bloom, D. et al, 2006. Higher Education and Economic Development in Africa, http://ent.arp.harvard.edu/AfricaHigherEducation/Reports/BloomAndCanning.pdf, p. 1

Bretag, T, 2015. “Australian unis should take responsibility for corrupt practices in international education,” The Conversation https://theconversation.com/australian-unis-should-take-responsibility-for-corrupt-practices-in-international-education-40380

Brimble, M. & Stevenson-Clarke, P. (2005) “Perceptions of the prevalence and seriousness of academic dishonesty in Australian Universities.” The Australian Education Researcher 32 (3), 19-44.

Bruckner, T., 2018. How donors can promote global health by promoting clinical trial transparency, U4 Brief (forthcoming).

Burdick, A. 2017. “Paging Dr. Fraud: the fake publishers that are ruining science,” The New Yorker,https://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/paging-dr-fraud-the-fake-publishers-that-are-ruining-science

Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA), 2018. Degree Mills: An Old Problem and a New Threat, at https://www.chea.org/4DCGI/degreemills/index2.html?MenuKey=main

David W. Chapman & Samira Lindner (2014) “Degrees of integrity: the threat of corruption in higher education,” Studies in Higher Education, 41:2, 247-268,DOI: 10.1080/03075079.2014.927854

Dawson, P., 2015. “Policing won’t be enough to prevent pay for plagiarism,” The Conversation, at https://theconversation.com/policing-wont-be-enough-to-prevent-pay-for-plagiarism-42999

Deloitte, 2011. Thinking the unthinkable: uncovering fraud in higher education, http://www.cpnq.org/files/pdf/Fraud%20in%20higher%20education.pdf

Denisova-Schmidt, E. 2017. The Challenges of Academic Integrity in Higher Education: Current Trends and Prospects. CIHE Perspectives No. 5, Boston College Centre for International Higher Education.

Dey, E.L., Korn, J.S. and Sax, L.J., 1996. Betrayed by the academy: The sexual harassment of women college faculty. The Journal of Higher Education, 67(2), pp.149-173.

Discouraging degree mills: http://etico.iiep.unesco.org/sites/default/files/183247e.pdf

Dziech, B.W. and Hawkins, M.W., 1998. Sexual harassment in higher education: Reflections and new perspectives (Vol. 12). Taylor & Francis.

Eckstein, Max (2003) Combating academic fraud: towards a culture of integrity. http://etico.iiep.unesco.org/en/combating-academic-fraud-towards-culture-integrity

Edwards, C. 2017. “Dozens of Italian University professors arrested over corruption claims,” The Local it, https://www.thelocal.it/20170926/university-teachers-under-house-arrest-over-corruption-after-being-unmasked-by-an-english-academic

Flaherty, C., 2017. “When Professors cross lines,” Inside Higher Ed, at https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2017/11/01/professors-three-campuses-face-disciplinary-action-or-resign-over-harassment

Gallant, T. B., 2011. Creating the Ethical Academy: A Systems Approach to Understanding Misconduct and Empowering Change. Routledge

Gohwar, I., 2017. “Degree certificate racket thrives in Bengaluru,”The Hindu, http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/degree-certificate-racket-thrives-in-bengaluru/article19127959.ece?utm_content=buffer69bc3&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer

Gow, S. (2014) « A cultural bridge for academic integrity? Mainland Chinese master’s graduates of UK institutions returning to China.” International Journal for Educational IntegrityVol. 10 No. 1 pp. 70-83

Green, S.P., 2006. Lying, cheating, and stealing: A moral theory of white-collar crime. Oxford University Press.

Grove, J., 2017. “Mafia professors control Pakistan’s corrupt research system,” Times Higher Education, https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/mafia-professors-control-pakistans-corrupt-research-system

Hallak and Poisson (2007). Corrupt school, corrupt universities: What can be done? UNESCO Press.

Hallak and Poisson (2007). Academic fraud, accreditation and quality assurance: Learning from the past and challenges for the future. In; Higher Education Report 2007. GUNI

Harper M. (2006) “High Tech Cheating.” Nurse Education Today26(8) 672-679.

Havergal, C., 2016. “Kenyan exam board bosses arrested over university entry ‘fraud’” Times Higher Education,

Heyneman, S. (2004) “Education and Corruption,” International Journal of Educational Development24: 637-648

Heyneman, S., 2014. “How Corruption Puts Higher Education at Risk,” International Higher Education75: 3-5

Hosny, M & Fatima, S.2014. “Attitude of students towards cheating and plagiarism: university case study,” Journal of Applied Sciences14 (8): 748-757. Available at: http://docsdrive.com/pdfs/ansinet/jas/2014/748-757.pdf

Huntington, S. 1991. “Democracy’s Third Wave.” Journal of DemocracyVol.2. No.2 Spring 1991 https://www.ned.org/docs/Samuel-P-Huntington-Democracy-Third-Wave.pdf

IIEP-UNESCO and CHEA (2016) Advisory statement for effective international practice. Combatting corruption and enhancing integrity: a contemporary challenge for the quality and credibility of higher eduction. http://etico.iiep.unesco.org/en/advisory-statement-effective-international-practice-combatting-corruption-and-enhancing-integrity

IIEP-UNESCO and Council for Higher Accreditation (CHEA), 2016. Advisory Statement for Effective International Practice: Combatting Corruption and Enhancing Integrity – A Contemporary Challenge for the Quality and Credibility of Higher Education, at http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002494/249460E.pdf

IIEP-UNESCO (2018) 3^rdannual conference on academic integrity: Academic integrity and internationalization.  May 18-19, 2018, Astana. http://hse-conference2018.kz

International Association of Women Judges (IAWJ), 2012. Stopping the abuse of power through sexual exploitation: naming, shaming and ending sextortion.At http://www.iawj.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Corruption-and-Sextortion-Resource-1.pdf

Jaschik, S., 2013. “Feeling the heat: the 2013 survey of college and university admissions directors,” Inside Higher Ed https://www.insidehighered.com/news/survey/feeling-heat-2013-survey-college-and-university-admissions-directors

Kalof, L., Eby, K.K., Matheson, J.L. and Kroska, R.J., 2001. The influence of race and gender on student self-reports of sexual harassment by college professors. Gender & Society, 15(2), pp.282-302.

Karugaba, M & Olupot, M. 2009. “Parliament wants Makerere boss to explain collapsed perimeter wall,” The New Vision, https://www.newvision.co.ug/new_vision/news/1221457/parliament-makerere-boss-explain-collapsed-perimeter-wall

Kirya, Monica 2011 Performing “good governance” Commissions of Inquiry and the Fight against Corruption in Uganda. PhD Thesis, University of Warwick, UK. http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/47800/1/WRAP_Theses_Kirya_2011.pdf

Kokutse, F. “Corruption among factors affecting HE quality process,” University World News, http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20180210135015347

Kuranchie, A., 2014. “The Perceived Corrupt Practices of Academics: What Conditions Promote Them?” Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies Vol. 3 No. 1, pp.

Kvit, S., 2018. “Ukraine: A roadmap to reform via autonomy.” University World News Issue No. 497, at http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20180316092127837

Lancaster, T. 2017. “How to stop cheating in universities.” The Conversation, at https://theconversation.com/how-to-stop-cheating-in-universities-85407

Leveille, D. E., 2006. Accountability in Higher Education: A Public Agenda for Trust and Cultural Change: Centre for Studies in Higher Education, University of California, Berkley.

Ligami, C., 2017. “Up to 88 Makerere Staff face degree forgery prosecution,” University World News,http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20170915135929598&utm_content=bufferc315f&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer

Makerere University, 2006. Policy and Regulations on Sexual Harrassment Prevention, at https://policies.mak.ac.ug/sites/default/files/policies/Makerere-University-Sexual-Harrassment-Policy%26Regulation-2006.pdf

Marklein, MB, 2016. “Quality assurance cannot solve corruption on its own.” University World News, at http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20160130005848512

Marklein, MB, 2017. “Collective Effort needed to combat academic corruption,” University world News, at http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20170204061140738&query=corruption

Martin, M., 2016.“External quality assurance in higher education: how can it address corruption and other malpractices?,” Quality in Higher Education, 22:1, 49-63, DOI: 10.1080/13538322.2016.1144903

McCabe et al, 2008. Academic Dishonesty in the Middle East: Individual and Contextual Factors. Research in Higher Education, Vol. 49, No. 5 pp. 451-467.  For more news articles and reports on corruption in higher education, see the ETICO platform, which can be accessed at http://etico.iiep.unesco.org/en

Nganda, I. (2009). “Janet’s degree is questioned.” The Observer, http://www.observer.ug/news/headlines/3693-janets-degree-is-questioned

Niamtullah Ibrahimi (2014) Bureaucratic Policies and Patronage Politics: Prospects and Challenges of Private Higher Education in Afghanistan. Afghanistan Watch Briefing Paper 01/2014, p. 1

O’Malley, B., 2018. “Developing Countires show the way to fight fraud,” University World News, at http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20180113050608736

Oanda, I. (2016) “The evolving nature of students participation in university governance in Africa: an overview of trends, policies and emerging issues;” in Luescher, T et al (2016), Student Politics in Africa: Representation and Activism, African Minds Publishers, Cape Town.

Pavela, G. 1997. Applying the Power of Association on Campus: A Model Code of Academic Integrity, http://www.academicintegrity.org/icai/assets/model_code.pdf

Perez-pe, R., 2014. “Best, Brightest and Rejected: Elite Colleges Turn Away Up to 95%,”  New York Times, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/09/us/led-by-stanfords-5-top-colleges-acceptance-rates-hit-new-lows.html

Persson et al, 2010. The failure of Anti-Corruption Policies: A Theoretical Mischaracterization of the Problem The Quality of Government Institute, Department of Political Science University of Gothenburg Working paper No. 19 of 2010. At https://qog.pol.gu.se/digitalAssets/1350/1350163_2010_19_persson_rothstein_teorell.pdf

Prospects Hedd & UK Department of Education, 2017. Advice and guidance on degree fraud: a toolkit for higher education providers http://cdn.prospects.ac.uk/2.0.7/pdf/HEDD%20degree%20fraud.pdf

Redden, E. 2012. “Catch them if you can,”  Inside Higher Ed, at   http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2012/09/14/international-educators-discuss-problem-fraud#ixzz26QjwbL1d

Rivera, M., 2018. “Blockchain technology in Education: How the latter can be disrupted.” At https://elearningindustry.com/blockchain-technology-in-education-latter-can-disrupted

Semrau, K., 2008. Embezzlement of donor funding in health projects. U4 Brief No. 11, 2008; https://www.cmi.no/publications/file/3031-embezzlement-of-donor-funding-in-health-projects.pdf

Sharma, Y., 2017. “Cash rewards soar for research published overseas,” University World News, http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20170713161438362

Socio-Economic Rights and Accountability Project (SERAP), 2018. “Stealing the Future:” How Federal Universities in Nigeria have been stripped apart by corruption.

Sutherland-Smith, W., 2008. Plagiarism, the Internet, and student learning: Improving academic integrity.Routledge.

The Spectator, 20 September 2017, “Teachers and scientists support anti-corruption march,” https://spectator.sme.sk/c/20653433/teachers-and-scientisy-support-anti-corruption-marhc.html  See also, The Spectator, 5 September 2017, « People will protest against corruption in Prague as well.»  spectator.sme.sk

Thomas Lancaster’s blog, “A decade of contract cheating: what shape is the bespoke essay industry in today?” http://thomaslancaster.co.uk/blog/a-decade-of-contract-cheating-what-shape-is-the-bespoke-essay-in-industry-today/

Thomson Reuters Foundation, n.d., Combatting Sextortion: A Comparative Study of Laws to prosecute corruption involving sexual exploitation, at https://www.trust.org/contentAsset/raw-data/588013e6-2f99-4d54-8dd8-9a65ae2e0802/file

Trines, S. 2017. “Academic Fraud, Corruption and Implications for Credential Assessment,” World Education News +Reviews, at https://wenr.wes.org/2017/12/academic-fraud-corruption-and-implications-for-credential-assessment#_ftn4

UN Women, 2016. HeForShe IMPACT 10x10x10, University Parity Report. At http://online.fliphtml5.com/zmam/fkdy/#p=38

Uslaner, E. & Rothstein, B. 2012. Mass Education, Statebuilding and Equality: Searching for the Roots of Corruption.Quality of Government (QoG) Institute Working Paper No. 5 of 2012, https://gupea.ub.gu.se/bitstream/2077/38980/1/gupea_2077_38980_1.pdf

Vietnamnet, 2017. “Education Ministry powerless in preventing ghostwriting of PhD dissertations,”http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/education/186946/education-ministry-powerless-in-preventing-ghostwriting-of-phd-dissertations.html

Waite D & D. Allen (2003). “Corruption and Abuse of Power in Educational Administration.” The Urban Review Vol. 35. No. 4

West E & Addington, L.2014.  International Student Recruitment Agencies: A Guide for Schools, Colleges and Universities, National Association for College Admission Counselling (NACAS), https://www.nacacnet.org/globalassets/documents/knowledge-center/international/internationalstudentrecruitmentagencies_nacac.pdf

Wood, P. (2010) “Earth Worms: The Eco-Corruption of Higher Education,” Academic Questions23: 11-19 DOI 10.1007/s12129-009-9150-6

Wrage, S. and Wrage, A., 2005. Multinational enterprises as “moral entrepreneurs” in a global prohibition regime against corruption. International Studies Perspectives, 6(3), pp.316-324.

Yang, Y &Zhang, A. 2017.  “China launches crackdown on academic fraud,” Financial Times, https://www.ft.com/content/680ea354-5251-11e7-bfb8-997009366969

Yorke, H., 2017. “More than 20,000 university students buying essays and dissertations as Lords call for ban on ‘contract cheating’” The Telegraph, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/2017/01/13/20000-university-students-buying-essays-dissertations-lords/

[1]Redden, E. 2012. “Catch them if you can,”  Inside Higher Ed, at   http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2012/09/14/international-educators-discuss-problem-fraud#ixzz26QjwbL1d

[2]See for example, this news article on college acceptance in the US, although similar trends are evident in other developed and developing countries. Perez-pe, R., 2014. “Best, Brightest and Rejected: Elite Colleges Turn Away Up to 95%,”  New York Times, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/09/us/led-by-stanfords-5-top-colleges-acceptance-rates-hit-new-lows.html

[3]Marklein, MB, 2016. “Quality assurance cannot solve corruption on its own.” University World News, at http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20160130005848512

[4]Uslaner, E. & Rothstein, B. 2012. Mass Education, Statebuilding and Equality: Searching for the Roots of Corruption. Quality of Government (QoG) Institute Working Paper No. 5 of 2012, https://gupea.ub.gu.se/bitstream/2077/38980/1/gupea_2077_38980_1.pdf

[5]David W. Chapman & Samira Lindner (2014) “Degrees of integrity: the threat of corruption in higher education,” Studies in Higher Education, 41:2, 247-268,DOI: 10.1080/03075079.2014.927854

[6]Awiti A, Scott B, Orwa C,Bhanjee S, 2017. East Africa Youth Survey. East Africa Institute, Aga Khan University, Nairobi, Kenya. The survey data can be dowloaded athttp://data.eadialogueseries.org/

[7]Barblan, A. et al, 2007. Academic Malpractice Threats and Temptations. Magna Charta Observatory and National Union of Students in Europe. Bononia University Press.

[8]As above, p. 14.

[9]As above, p. 21

[10]Niamtullah Ibrahimi (2014) Bureaucratic Policies and Patronage Politics: Prospects and Challenges of Private Higher Education in Afghanistan. Afghanistan Watch Briefing Paper 01/2014, p. 1

[11]Osipan, A., 2008. “Corruption and Coercion: University Autonomy versus State Control.” European Education 40(3): 27- 48.

[12]As above, pp. 43-44.

[13]As above, p. 16.

[14]Kokutse, F. “Corruption among factors affecting HE quality process,” University World News, http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20180210135015347

[15]Ibrahimi, above; note 2.

[16]Abagi, O., 2006. “Private Higher Education in Kenya,” Chapter 3 in Growth and expansion of private higher education in Africa,  UNESCO International Institute for Education Planning, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001502/150255e.pdf, p. 91

[17]Oanda, I. ( 2016) “The evolving nature of students participation in university governance in Africa: an overview of trends, policies and emerging issues;” in Luescher, T et al (2016),Student Politics in Africa: Representation and Activism, African Minds Publishers, Cape Town.

[18]Achuka, V. (2015) “Money and Politics behind student unions,” The Daily Nation https://www.nation.co.ke/news/politics/The-money-and-politics-behind-student-unions/1064-2661876-format-xhtml-fw6csrz/index.html

[19]The Spectator, 5 September 2017, “People will protest against corruption in Prague as well”  spectator.sme.sk

[20]See http://www.africanews.com/2018/03/05/university-of-zimbabwe-vice-chancellor-in-trouble-over-grace-mugabe-s-phd-the//

[21]Nganda, I. (2009). “Janet’s degree is questioned.” The Observer,   http://www.observer.ug/news/headlines/3693-janets-degree-is-questioned

[22]Waite D & D. Allen (2003). “Corruption and Abuse of Power in Educational Administration.” The Urban Review Vol. 35. No. 4

[23]Aduda, D.,  2017. “Kenyan universities given deadline to clear rot as quality declines.” The East African, http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/kenya-universities-deadline-to-clear-rot/2558-3869142-tkusp8z/index.htmlSee also Ouma, W., 2017. “Kenya Varsities Cancel fake degrees.” The East African, http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/Kenya-varsities-cancel-fake-degrees/2558-4007612-6tb8dq/index.html

[24]Barigaba, J., 2016. “Uganda: Scandal- How Ugandan Varsity awarded 1,000 South Sudanese degrees in months,” The East Africanhttp://allafrica.com/stories/201611290869.html

[25]Heyneman, S. (2004) “Education and Corruption,” International Journal of Educational Development24: 637-648

[26]BBC News, 2015. “Vyapam: India’s deadly medical school exam scandal.” At http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-33421572

[27]Socio-Economic Rights and Accountability Project (SERAP), 2018. “Stealing the future,” How Fedral Universities in Nigeria have been stripped apart by corruption.

[28]West E & Addington, L.2014.  International Student Recruitment Agencies: A Guide for Schools, Colleges and Universities, National Association for College Admission Counselling (NACAS), https://www.nacacnet.org/globalassets/documents/knowledge-center/international/internationalstudentrecruitmentagencies_nacac.pdf

[29]American Council on Education, 2017. Mapping internationalisation on US campuses, http://www.acenet.edu/news-room/Documents/Mapping-Internationalization-2017.pdf, pp. 26-27

[30]Jaschik, S., 2013. “Feeling the heat: the 2013 survey of college and university admissions directors,” Inside Higher Ed https://www.insidehighered.com/news/survey/feeling-heat-2013-survey-college-and-university-admissions-directors

[31] Australian Government, 2011. Strategic Review of the Student Visa Programme, Chapter 14, https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/ReportsandPublications/Documents/reviews-and-inquiries/2011-knight-review.pdf

[32]Bretag, T, 2015. “Australian unis should take responsibility for corrupt practices in international education,” The Conversation https://theconversation.com/australian-unis-should-take-responsibility-for-corrupt-practices-in-international-education-40380

[33]Kuranchie, A., 2014. “The Perceived Corrupt Practices of Academics: What Conditions Promote Them?” Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies Vol. 3 No. 1, pp.  See also SERAP, 2018 above note 38.

[34]Edwards, C. 2017. “Dozens of Italian University professors arrested over corruption claims,” The Local it, https://www.thelocal.it/20170926/university-teachers-under-house-arrest-over-corruption-after-being-unmasked-by-an-english-academic

[35]Moonlighting is defined by the Cambridge Dictionary of English as “paid work that you do in addition to your normal job, especially without telling your employer,” At https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/moonlighting

[36]SERAP, 2018; note 38 above.

[37]See for instance, Semrau, K., 2008.Embezzlement of donor funding in health projects. U4 Brief No. 11, 2008; https://www.cmi.no/publications/file/3031-embezzlement-of-donor-funding-in-health-projects.pdfSee also anecdotes on these and related problems at Academic Anonymous, 2015. “We shouldn’t keep quiet about how research grant money is really spent,” The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/2015/mar/27/research-grant-money-spent;

[38]Deloitte, 2011. Thinking the unthinkable: uncovering fraud in higher education, http://www.cpnq.org/files/pdf/Fraud%20in%20higher%20education.pdf

[39]Karugaba, M & Olupot, M. 2009. “Parliament wants Makerere boss to explain collapsed perimeter wall,” The New Vision, https://www.newvision.co.ug/new_vision/news/1221457/parliament-makerere-boss-explain-collapsed-perimeter-wall

[40]Although some surveys on plagiarism and cheating have been done in developed countries, the issue has not been studied in developing countries. For the former, see for example, Brimble, M. & Stevenson-Clarke, P. (2005) “Perceptions of the prevalence and seriousness of academic dishonesty in Australian Universities.” TheAustralian Education Researcher 32 (3), 19-44.

[41]Thomas Lancaster’s blog, “A decade of contract cheating: what shape is the bespoke essay industry in today?” http://thomaslancaster.co.uk/blog/a-decade-of-contract-cheating-what-shape-is-the-bespoke-essay-in-industry-today/

[42]Yorke, H., 2017. “More than 20,000 university students buying essays and dissertations as Lords call for ban on ‘contract cheating’” The Telegraph, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/2017/01/13/20000-university-students-buying-essays-dissertations-lords/

[43]Lancaster’s blog, above.

[44]Vietnamnet, 2017. “Education Ministry powerless in preventing ghostwriting of PhD dissertations,” http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/education/186946/education-ministry-powerless-in-preventing-ghostwriting-of-phd-dissertations.html

[45]Hosny, M & Fatima, S.2014. “Attitude of students towards cheating and plagiarism: university case study,” Journal of Applied Sciences14 (8): 748-757. Available at: http://docsdrive.com/pdfs/ansinet/jas/2014/748-757.pdf

[46]Wood, P. (2010) “Earth Worms: The Eco-Corruption of Higher Education,” Academic Questions23: 11-19 DOI 10.1007/s12129-009-9150-6

[47]See Bruckner, T. (2018) How donors can promote global health by promoting clinical trial transparency, U4 Brief (forthcoming).

[48]Burdick, A. 2017. “Paging Dr. Fraud: the fake publishers that are ruining science,” The New Yorker,https://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/paging-dr-fraud-the-fake-publishers-that-are-ruining-science

^[49]Yang, Y &Zhang, A. 2017.  “China launches crackdown on academic fraud,” Financial Times, https://www.ft.com/content/680ea354-5251-11e7-bfb8-997009366969

[50]Sharma, Y., 2017. “Cash rewards soar for research published overseas,” University World News, http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20170713161438362

[51]Grove, J., 2017. “Mafia professors control Pakistan’s corrupt research system,” Times Higher Education, https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/mafia-professors-control-pakistans-corrupt-research-system

[52]See Harper M. (2006) “High Tech Cheating.” Nurse Education Today26(8) 672-679.

[53]Bristol, T. J. (2018). “Examination Test Banks at Risk.” Teaching and Learning in Nursing13(1): 66-68; at

⁶⁶See also, Savage, A. and Simkin, M.G., 2010. Ethical concerns about the online sale of instructor-only textbook resources. In Research on Professional Responsibility and Ethics in Accounting (pp. 213-231); at http://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1023&context=acct_fac

[54]Ligami, C., 2017. “Up to 88 Makerere Staff face degree forgery prosecution,” University World News,http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20170915135929598&utm_content=bufferc315f&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer

[55]Havergal, C., 2016. “Kenyan exam board bosses arrested over university entry ‘fraud’” Times Higher Education,

https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/kenyan-exam-board-bosses-arrested-over-university-entry-fraud

[56]Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA), 2018. Degree Mills: An Old Problem and a New Threat, at  https://www.chea.org/4DCGI/degreemills/index2.html?MenuKey=main

[57]Gohwar, I., 2017. “Degree certificate racket thrives in Bengaluru,”The Hindu, http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/degree-certificate-racket-thrives-in-bengaluru/article19127959.ece?utm_content=buffer69bc3&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer

[58]This article was originally published at http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/22027 but is no longer available. A cached copy of the English version article is available at http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:OrILngeSHioJ:english.al-akhbar.com/node/22027+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=no

[59]Thomson Reuters Foundation, n.d., Combatting Sextortion: A Comparative Study of Laws to prosecute corruption involving sexual exploitation,at https://www.trust.org/contentAsset/raw-data/588013e6-2f99-4d54-8dd8-9a65ae2e0802/filep. 19. See also International Association of Women Judges (IAWJ), 2012. Stopping the abuse of power through sexual exploitation: naming, shaming and ending sextortion.At http://www.iawj.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Corruption-and-Sextortion-Resource-1.pdf

However, the term is also used in the media and among some law enforcement agencies to refer to “a form of blackmail where criminals use fake identities to befriend victims online – using websites such as Facebook, Skype or Linkedin – before persuading them to peform sex acts in front of their webcam.The images are recorded by the criminals who then threaten to share them with the victims’ friends and family unless they accede to their demands for payment.” See Massey, N, 2016. “Sextortion: Rise in blackmail-related suicides over sexual images shared online,” The Independent, at https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/sextortion-rise-suicides-blackmailing-sexual-images-sharing-social-media-a7446776.html?ampThe two phenomena are conceptually different; further work is needed to delineate and clarify the terms.

[60]Dey, E.L., Korn, J.S. and Sax, L.J., 1996. “Betrayed by the academy: The sexual harassment of women college faculty.” The Journal of Higher Education, 67(2), pp.149-173. Flaherty, C., 2017. “When Professors cross lines,” Inside Higher Ed, at https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2017/11/01/professors-three-campuses-face-disciplinary-action-or-resign-over-harassmentSee also Anonymous, 2017. “Is there a culture of denial around sexual misconduct in academia?” Times Higher Education, at https://www.timeshighereducation.com/features/there-culture-denial-around-sexual-misconduct-academia

[61]Joseph, J., 2015. “Sexual Harassment in Tertiary Institutions: A Comparative Perspective,” at http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/1450-6637/2015/1450-66371502125H.pdf

SERAP, 2018 (see above, note 38) found that sexual harassment of (mostly) female students was a prevalent form of corruption Nigerian Universities. See for example, Atuhaire, P., 2018. “Uganda’s Makerere University: My lecturer tried to rape me,” BBC News, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-43287621

[62]Dziech, B.W. and Hawkins, M.W., 1998. Sexual harassment in higher education: Reflections and new perspectives (Vol. 12). Taylor & Francis. Kalof, L., Eby, K.K., Matheson, J.L. and Kroska, R.J., 2001. The influence of race and gender on student self-reports of sexual harassment by college professors. Gender & Society, 15(2), pp.282-302.

[63]Australian Human Rights Commission, 2017. Change the Course: National Report on Sexual Assault and Sexual Harrassment in Australian Universities,2017. Athttps://www.humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/document/publication/AHRC_2017_ChangeTheCourse_UniversityReport.pdf

[64]Makerere University, 2006. Policy and Regulations on Sexual Harrassment Prevention, at https://policies.mak.ac.ug/sites/default/files/policies/Makerere-University-Sexual-Harrassment-Policy%26Regulation-2006.pdf

[65]Khan, M.H., 2017. Introduction: Political Settlements and the Analysis of Institutions. African Affairs, pp.1-20. See also, Di John, Jonathan and Putzel, James (2009) Political Settlements: Issues paper. Discussion Paper. University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.

[66]Asiimwe, S & Steyn, G.M., 2013. “Obstacles hindering the effective governance of universities in Uganda,” Journal of Social Sciences 34(1): 17-27  See the Uganda Universities and Other Tertiary Institutions Act, section 26, which designates the President of Uganda as  “Visitor” of the university.

[67]Kvit, S., 2018. “Ukraine: A roadmap to reform via autonomy.” University World NewsIssue No. 497, at http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20180316092127837

[68]Martin. M, 2018. Internal Quality Assurance: Enhancing higher education quality and graduate employability. UNESCO Publishing. Athttp://pmb.cereq.fr/doc_num.php?explnum_id=4254

[69]See web page at http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/higher-education/bologna-process_en

[70]See African Union Education web page at https://au.int/en/education-division

[71]African News Agency (ANA), 2018. “Anti-plagiarism software enhances academic integrity.” The Citizen,  https://citizen.co.za/news/south-africa/1841197/anti-plagiarism-software-enhances-academic-integrity/

[72]Marklein, MB (2017) “Collective Effort needed to combat academic corruption,” University world News, at http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20170204061140738&query=corruption

[73]Rivera, M., 2018. “Blockchain technology in Education: How the latter can be disrupted.” Athttps://elearningindustry.com/blockchain-technology-in-education-latter-can-disrupted

[74]Gow, S. (2014) « A cultural bridge for academic integrity? Mainland Chinese master’s graduates of UK institutions returning to China.” International Journal for Educational IntegrityVol. 10 No. 1 pp. 70-83

[75]Website:  https://wun.ac.uk/wun/research/view/global-africa-group

[76]As above.

[77]Times Higher Education, 2013. Corruption in Universities: A blueprint for reform. At https://www.timeshighereducation.com/comment/opinion/corruption-in-universities-a-blueprint-for-reform/2009139.article

[78]See information at http://www.gju.edu.jo/news/interactive-workshop-about-%E2%80%9C-universities-against-corruption-initiative%E2%80%9D-6771

[79]Denisova-Schmidt, E. 2017. The Challenges of Academic Integrity in Higher Education: Current Trends and Prospects.CIHE Perspectives No. 5, Boston College Centre for International Higher Education.

[80]Pavela, G. 1997. Applying the Power of Association on Campus: A Model Code of Academic Integrity, http://www.academicintegrity.org/icai/assets/model_code.pdf

[81] The Spectator, 20 September 2017, “Teachers and scientists support anti-corruption march,” https://spectator.sme.sk/c/20653433/teachers-and-scientisy-support-anti-corruption-marhc.html See also, The Spectator, 5 September 2017, « People will protest against corruption in Prague as well.» spectator.sme.sk

[82]Michaela Martin (2016) “External quality assurance in higher education: how can it address corruption and other malpractices?” Quality in Higher Education, 22:1, 49-63, DOI: 10.1080/13538322.2016.1144903

[83]Trines, S. 2017. “Academic Fraud, Corruption and Implications for Credential Assessment,” World Education News +Reviews, at https://wenr.wes.org/2017/12/academic-fraud-corruption-and-implications-for-credential-assessment#_ftn4

[84]Leveille, D. E., 2006. Accountability in Higher Education: A Public Agenda for Trust and Cultural Change: Centre for Studies in Higher Education, University of California, Berkley.

[85]Harvey, L., 2014. The Role of professional Bodies in Higher Education Quality Monitoring, at Quality in Higher Education project, University of Central England, Birmingham. At http://www.qualityresearchinternational.com/Harvey%20papers/Harvey%20and%20Mason%20Professions%201995%20%5B2014%5D.pdf

[86]http://hec.gov.pk/english/services/students/Degree%20Attestation%20System/Pages/Degree-Attestation.aspx

[87]http://www.cdgdc.edu.cn/en/contact0us/272343.shtml

[88]https://www.waecdirect.org/

[89]https://dohe.mohe.gov.my/award/

[90]For instance, the American International Recruitment Council, https://www.airc-education.org/files/AIRC-Resource-documents/Best%20Practices%20White%20Paper_5.4.15%20Version.pdf, The National Association for College Admission Counselling (NACAC), at https://www.nacacnet.org/globalassets/documents/publications/international-initiatives/internationalstudentrecruitmentagencies_nacac.pdf, and the British Council, at https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/managing_education_agents_report_for_bc_2.pdf

[91]See  IIEP-UNESCO and Council for Higher Accreditation (CHEA), 2016. Advisory Statement for effective International Practice: Combatting Corruption and Enhancing Integrity – A Contemporary Challenge for the Quality and Credibility of Higher Education,at http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002494/249460E.pdf

[92]Lancaster, T. 2017. “ How to stop cheating in universities.” The Conversation, at https://theconversation.com/how-to-stop-cheating-in-universities-85407

[93]Dawson, P., 2015. “Policing won’t be enough to prevent pay for plagiarism,” The Conversation, at https://theconversation.com/policing-wont-be-enough-to-prevent-pay-for-plagiarism-42999

[94]Sutherland-Smith, W., 2008. Plagiarism, the Internet, and student learning: Improving academic integrity. Routledge.

[95]For a comprehensive review of such studies, see Watts, L.L., Medeiros, K.E., Mulhearn, T.J., Steele, L.M., Connelly, S. and Mumford, M.D., 2017. Are ethics training programs improving? A meta-analytic review of past and present ethics instruction in the sciences. Ethics & behavior, 27(5), pp.351-384.

[96]Tannenberg, M  2014. Role of Universities in the Fight Against Corruption. University World News Issue 343. Available at http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20141113110707222

[97]Anonymous, 2018. “Makerere to strengthen enforcement of sexual harassment policy,” The Daily Monitor,18 February 2018. At http://www.monitor.co.ug/News/National/Makerere-to-strengthen-enforcement-of-sexual-harassment-policy/688334-4309636-et4wqcz/index.html

[98]Univerity of the Witwatersrand, South Africa; University of Hong Kong; Nagoya University, Japan; University of Leicester, UK; University of Oxford, UK; Science Po, France: Stony Brook University, USA; Georgetown University, USA; University of Waterloo, Canada.

[99]UN Women, 2016. HeForShe IMPACT 10x10x10, University Parity Report. At http://online.fliphtml5.com/zmam/fkdy/#p=38

^[100]Jongsma, A. 2014. “Post-2015 European support to African HE taking shape,” University World News Issue No. 336, athttp://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20140925091205558&query=Okebukola

[101]Wrage, S. and Wrage, A., 2005. Multinational enterprises as “moral entrepreneurs” in a global prohibition regime against corruption. International Studies Perspectives, 6(3), pp.316-324.

[102]See www.academicintegrity.org

[103]http://www.academicintegrity.org/icai/resources-1.php

[104]http://www.academicintegrity.org/icai/assets/unauthorizedcollaboration.pdf

[105]http://www.academicintegrity.org/icai/assets/avoidingplagiarism.pdf

[106]Pavela, G., 1997. “Applying the Power of Association on Campus: A Model Code of Academic Integrity,” Journal of College and University Law, 24(1)  1http://www.academicintegrity.org/icai/assets/model_code.pdf

[107]As above.

[108]http://www.academicintegrity.org/icai/assets/AIRS.pdf

[109]For example, Addressing Plagiarism http://etico.iiep.unesco.org/sites/default/files/addressing_plagiarism.pdf

Discouraging degree mills: http://etico.iiep.unesco.org/sites/default/files/183247e.pdf

[110]https://www.bc.edu/bc-web/schools/lsoe/sites/cihe.html

[111]https://euraxess.ec.europa.eu/jobs/charter/european-charter

[112]http://www.magna-charta.org/resources/files/depliant-2016

[113]http://www.magna-charta.org/magna-charta-observatory

[114]http://thomaslancaster.co.uk/blog/

[115]References and Resources on Quality Assurance and Combatting Academic Corruption http://www.chea.org/userfiles/CIQG/resources-QA.pdf